On 11th December 2011, the 17th United Nations Climate Change Conference was concluded in Durban, South Africa. Among the main aims of the Conference were the definition of objectives following the Kyoto Protocol, which expires in 2012, and a discussion regarding effective measures to counter the damaging effects of greenhouse gas emissions and global warming.
Several decisions were made on this occasion: in particular, the so-called 'Durban Platform' was adopted, which is a document for initiating the negotiation process aimed at the definition of an international treaty (a protocol or another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force), valid for all UNFCC countries (Note 1) (194 countries).
This process is divided into two phases. During the first one, which will conclude in 2015, a draft treaty will be drawn up and fine-tuned, to be adopted during the plenary assembly of the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP-21) at the end of 2015.
During the second phase the adopted treaty will be open to signing and national ratification in accordance with UN procedures, such that it may become effective from 2020. Aside from the Durban platform, procedures were initiated in order to prolong the validity of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its expiry in 2012, to 2017 or 2020, in conformity with the decisions that shall be made in the future, both in relation to the size and nature of the voluntary commitments which the individual countries shall declare themselves willing to take on, and to the necessity for coordination and integration with the process established by the Durban Platform itself. An operational green light was also given to the Green Climate Fund as Financial Institution of the UNFCCC with independent legal status, whose headquarters and detailed operation programmes will be decided at the next Conference of the Parties (COP-18) at the end of 2012 in Qatar. Finally, the tools and mechanisms needed to render operational both the transition phase (2013-2020), in which only the amended or renewed Kyoto Protocol will be operational, and the future operation of the international treaty when it becomes effective in 2020, were identified. Of particular importance among these tools are the rules and mechanisms for the fight against deforestation and soil degradation (REDD+ (Note 2)), the preparation and implementation methods for 'Adaptation Plans' in developing countries, the mechanism for technological transfer and capacity building, the relative governance and management standards, and the financial mechanisms and their administrative and management methods, etc.
Some very positive aspects emerged from the Durban Conference, including the involvement of even the most reluctant countries such as the USA, China and India, and their commitment to a legally-binding framework to reduce their emissions. Of equal importance was the opening of the Kyoto Protocol to voluntary and legally-binding obligations for industrialised countries and to voluntary but non-legally-binding obligations for the developing countries, which were previously excluded. However every silver lining has a cloud: in particular, the actions which should be taken in order to reduce global emissions of greenhouse gases and for the containment of global warming to 2°C compared to the pre-industrial era were not defined. Another element open to criticism lies in the fact that the ambitious target of reducing global emissions by around 80% by 2050 compared to 1990, may be influenced by a 9n years' transition phase before the commitments become legally binding for all. This means that if no highly ambitious voluntary commitments are made by industrialised countries before 2020 (reduction of around 40% compared to 1990) and an effective reduction in the carbon footprints of emerging developing countries is not achieved by the same year, the risk of not achieving the objective of maintaining global warming below 2°C will be higher. In any case, the decisions made in Durban also provide for assessment of the path, or possible paths, to reducing global emissions in order to achieve the 2°C objective; such assessment should be performed following the new IPCC estimates (Note 3), predicted for 2013 and, in any case, before 2015. Unless a revolution occurs over the next decade such that the world frees itself from its dependence on fossil fuels, the excessively prolonged timescale put forward by the Durban Platform will not play to the world's advantage.

For its part, the EU has been very active in attempts to contain climate change for a long time now. The European Union is aware of the close intertwining of the environmental and energy-related concerns, and such awareness led to the development of an independent strategy for reducing the emissions of substances harmful to the environment. Through Directive 2009/28/EC, such strategy was planned and addressed towards three objectives, known as the '20-20-20 objectives' (Note 4). Aside from these objectives and the Directive, a large part of EU activity has been focused on planning, by means of multi-year programmes for the financing of initiatives conceptualised by individual member states, each of which has different contexts and realities. Currently, the Seventh Framework Programme is in place, which will be valid from 2007-2013.
Returning to the '20-20-20 objectives', distributing common objectives across the various nations was a particularly delicate operation. For example, when examining the objective regarding the influence of renewable energy resources on total energy consumption, the predictions on final consumption as of 2020 for the different EU member states were considered alongside renewable energy sources contributions in 2005. For Italy, an objective of 17% emerged, to be sub-divided across the Regions. This division falls under the label of 'Burden Sharing' (Note 5).
If there is much action underway with regard to energy concerns, other environmental aspects are likewise of absolute topicality, and increasing attention has been focused on the health of land and environment in which we live. Unfortunately research still lacks uniformity and making comparisons between different regions is often difficult. At present, although we are succeeding in gradually limiting emissions of substances harmful to the environment, we need time in order to stop the process of climate change currently underway and then cause it to recede.
Intervention is thus required from more than one angle; actions aimed on the one hand at reversing the current direction, and on the other, at tackling the now tangible effects of climate change. With regard to the latter, which falls under the title of 'adaptation', the European Commission has observed that adaptation is already ongoing but in a fragmented manner. Instead, a more strategic approach is required in order to ensure that the necessary adaptation measures are adopted in good time and that they are effective and coherent across the various government departments and levels concerned [...]. Reinforcing the EU's resilience against climate change is also an opportunity for investing in a low-carbon emission economy which promotes, for example, energy efficiency and the diffusion of ecological products. This is also one of the main objectives of the European plan for economic recovery, which defines the UE's responses to the present financial crisis and takes a step towards a creative economy based upon knowledge. At the same time, a modernisation of European infrastructures and boosting the competitiveness of our economies will facilitate structural changes. (Note 6).
With reference to the other environmental objective, the reduction of greenhouse gases, on the 17th April 2012 a National Plan to reduce emissions in Italy by 2020 was presented by the Ministry of the Environment. The new target foresees an overall reduction in greenhouse gases of 25% by 2020 across the whole nation. The measures contained in the Plan foresee 'the establishment of a catalogue of technologies, systems and products for decarbonising the Italian economy; the introduction of a carbon tax (resources for the enhancement of the Kyoto Fund); energy efficiency; distributed generation and the development of intelligent networks for 'smart cities'; eco-construction and the extension of a tax offset (55%) for low-CO₂ investments; finally, the management of forestry assets as a CO₂ sink and for the production of biomass and bio-fuels.
A fundamental role for the correct implementation of the actions aimed towards environmental protection is played by research and monitoring of the current situation, which must be made both systematic and standardised across the different areas. In Italy we are working to this aim, although our environmental statistics have not yet reached the optimal level of punctuality and detail. (Note 7)
In this chapter, several elements linked to the macro-areas of the environment are examined: air, water, waste and energy, with particular reference being made to the region of Veneto. Alongside these, several other factors characterising the territory and providing indications regarding the quality of life within it and the care exhibited by its population and local institutions towards the environment, are also analysed. A section is dedicated to the territory, with particular reference to the problem of forest fires. Several examples of initiatives and best practices for environmental protection from local organisations and institutions operating in the territory have also been included.

The temperature of the Earth is regulated by a delicate balance. It is primarily maintained by the sun's radiation. However radiation alone would result in the effective temperature of the earth's surface falling at around 255K (Note 8). In reality, the world average is a little higher, at 288K, equal to 15°C. This phenomenon is due to the presence of gases within the atmosphere that in part absorb ultraviolet rays (ozone) and in part, infrared rays (predominantly water vapour and CO₂). A small amount of the absorbed infrared radiation is irradiated into space, the rest is reflected back to the Earth. This phenomenon causes the heating of the planet, known as the greenhouse effect. The gases which absorb and reflect infrared rays to the Earth are known as greenhouse gases. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases causes a further increase in average temperature; one of the most critical environmental concerns of the current era. One of the main objectives of environmental policy is precisely the containment of this effect through a reduction in anthropogenic emissions of these greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
In this paragraph we attempted to outline the trend of greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 to 2005 across the Region, using the data contained in the Sinanet database (Note 9). Two analyses were conducted: the first was related to the distribution of greenhouse gas emissions by type (Note 10), and the second to the emissions produced by the individual manufacturing sectors.
A highly variable trend emerged from the preliminary overall examination, with a reduction in emissions occurring from 1990 to 1995 and subsequent increase in 2000. In 2005, the last year available, a renewed contraction occurred which brought values back to their 1995 levels, i.e. to less than 45 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent. Similarly, in Italy emissions followed the same trend until 2000, but continued to grow during 2005 (with the exception of Veneto), reaching an all-time record level of 484 million tonnes. On a national scale, the data available continue as far as 2009, and most recent years paint a more encouraging picture, registering a decidedly significant reduction of 88 million tonnes since 2005, for a total of 396 million tonnes.
Regarding the individual contaminating substances in detail, in Veneto carbon dioxide represented 84.5% of total greenhouse gas emissions in 2005, in line with the rest of the country. The remaining 15% of greenhouse gases is mainly composed of nitrous oxide and methane, 8.5% and 6.6% respectively. Finally there are hexafluorides and halocarbons which represent 0.5%.
These compositions change little over time with small variations being caused by slightly different dynamics in the emission of the individual substances. Carbon dioxide drops by less than one percent, whereas methane and nitrous oxide experience more significant drops, up to 22% and 10% respectively (Figure 16.3.1)
By analysing macro-sectors and their relative greenhouse gas emissions, one may observe that energy production and fuel processing plants have the greatest impact, with around 29% of total emissions in 2005. Following these is non-industrial combustion and road transport, both at 19.6% of emissions. Industrial combustion is responsible for 11% of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, whereas agriculture is responsible for 8.5%. It is worth noting that LULUCF absorption (Note 11) in turn represents 8.4% of total emissions, in practice counterbalancing the entire agriculture sector (Figure 16.3.2).
One particular greenhouse gas is ozone (O₃) which, in contrast to other greenhouse gases, absorbs some of the sun's energy, filtering out harmful UV rays. This gas is concentrated in the ozonosphere, the lower part of the stratosphere about 25 km in altitude, and is fundamental for the survival of all living species. At the same time, ozone is also present in the lower layers of the atmosphere as a pollutant from anthropic activity. Its concentration in the lower layers of atmosphere should therefore be considered as that of a polluting substance. Legislative Decree 155/2010 defined 0₃ air concentration levels for the protection of human health. Specifically, the decree outlined an alarm threshold (240 microg/m₃), defined as the level beyond which human health may be at risk even if exposed for a short amount of time; an information threshold (180 microg/m₃); and the long-term objective which foresees a daily average across 8 hours of no more than 120 microg/m₃.
If we analyse the trend of ozone concentration in several monitoring stations located in an urban and traffic-logged context from 2007 and 2010, the situation appears variable. In fact, taking the information threshold (180 microg/m₃) as a point of reference, the number of times the concentration exceeded said level is more or less disparate, not following a specific trend. This can be explained by the fact that the concentration of ozone in the air, aside from the anthropic aspect, also depends a great deal on climactic, atmospheric and wind conditions. (Figure 16.3.3)
Another aspect relative to breathing air quality which has been hotly debated over recent years is linked to PM10 or fine particulate pollution. In this regard, several monitoring stations located within urban and traffic-logged contexts have been considered as they are particularly critical with regard to the level of fine particulate pollution.
The data show that apart from Belluno, in all other main cities in Veneto the problem of PM10 still of significant concern; even in 2010, the number of times the concentration level exceeded the daily limit of 50 microg/m₃ surpassed the 35 times permitted by the Decree of 2nd April 2002, no. 60, of the Ministry of the Environment and Protection of Land, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health. The situation has however improved over the past five years, despite a certain level of stabilisation over the past two years.
A significant contribution to the accumulation of fine particles has undoubtedly been provided by domestic heating systems and by industrial processes as well as by vehicular traffic. There is however another determining factor for the excessive number of times the pollutant concentration levels defined by law are exceeded: the climate of the Po Valley. Due to its geographical structure, the valley is characterised by a high level of air stagnation, with air exchange being difficult. For this reason, pollutant concentrations remain in suspension for long periods of time which facilitates their accumulation. A positive note is that everywhere average annual concentrations are falling below the threshold of 40 microg/m₃ defined by the aforementioned Decree no. 60. (Figure 16.3.4), (Figure 16.3.5)
The particulate also includes finer powders, of diameter smaller than 2.5 micron which fall under the label PM2.5. Due to their fine diameter, these substances are particularly damaging insofar as they are capable of penetrating into the lower respiratory tract. As was the case for PM10, an average annual concentration limit was put in place for these substances. This limit is fixed as a target which is to be reached by 2015 and, pursuant to Legislative Decree 155/2010, involves not exceeding an average annual air concentration value of 25 microg/m₃. In 2010, the legally-imposed limit was exceeded in 7 out of 14 monitoring stations, once again showing that attention must be focused upon this environmental issue. The most critical issues are concentration in the urban, traffic-logged and industrial areas of big cities. (Figure 16.3.6)
Various plans and programmes for the protection of the environment fall within the context of the national-level Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), based upon Directive 2001/42/EC and Legislative Decree 152/2006. In particular, the Regional Government Decree no. 2988 of 01/10/2004 provides a list of regional plans and programmes subject to environmental assessment. Among these is the Water Protection Plan, aimed at identifying ways in which to protect hydrological resources. One of the objectives concerns the environmental conditions of bodies of water, which should be of a 'good' level everywhere by 22/12/2015 (Note 12). The same decree also established several activities to be undertaken for the improvement of the conditions of water bodies, alongside several measures for the protection of water reserves through balanced usage.
The latest data relative to the qualitative state of river and lake waters demonstrates an improvement on the past; a sign that the policies implemented on a regional level have seen some results. The LIMeco index, introduced by Ministerial Decree 260/2010 of the Ministry of the Environment and Protection of Land and Sea (which modified the provisions of the previous Legislative Decree 152/2006), identifies the pollution level of waterways in terms of five classes extending from 'poor' to 'high'. In 2010, over 50% of monitoring stations were classified within the 'good' and 'high' classes, 33% in the 'satisfactory' class, while 'substandard' and 'poor' waterways were fewer than 16% (Figure 16.3.7)
By focusing attention on individual water basins, the greatest concentration of stations registering a good or high environmental state is observed on River Piave. In general, within the individual basins, the highest concentrations of at least a good level are found in correspondence with mountain or foothill tracts. (Figure 16.3.8)
On the basis of 2010 monitoring results relative to lakes, the majority of lakes in the Belluno area present an index value of 2, corresponding to 'good': Mis, Corlo and Misurina, which confirmed their ranking from the previous four years, Centro Cadore and Santa Caterina, which have moved up a class since 2009. Two lakes fall within class 3 (Satisfactory): Santa Croce, as in 2009, and Alleghe, which has improved.
The lakes of the province of Treviso, Santa Maria and Lago, fall within class 4 (Substandard) and 2 (Good) respectively; the first of these results was in line with the majority of previous classifications, while the second was an improvement.
In the province of Verona, Lake Garda presented an index value of 2 across all classified monitoring stations.
In the province of Vicenza, Lake Fimon emerged as class 2, moving up a class on the previous year.
In 2010 the overall state across the region could be considered good. Extending the analysis to the last decade, it is observed that all the main lakes have more or less maintained their initial environmental state and, in the majority of cases, this has actually improved slightly, probably due to operations implemented by the Water Protection Plan. (Figure 16.3.9)
Another aspect linked to water is the fundamental issue of drinking water and thus the issue of the distribution and consumption of this resource. In Veneto, 90% of water resources distributed via aqueducts come from underground sources, whereas rivers and canals cover the remaining 10%. The organisation and supply of the regional hydrological system are controlled by the Autorità d'Ambito Territoriale Ottimale (AATOs, Optimal Territorial Ambit Authorities) which subcontract the management of aqueducts to various Management Bodies. The Servizi di Igiene Alimenti e Nutrizione (SIAN, Food Hygiene and Nutrition Services) of the AULSS (Social and Health Care Authority) in turn perform quality controls on the water supplied.
One of the most interesting parameters for monitoring the quality of drinking water is the presence of nitrates. Though these are found in low concentrations in water, they must be kept under control as they are dangerous for human health. Their concentration exceeding certain values is probably due to the presence of anthropic pollution. According to World Health Organisation estimates (Note 13), concentrations exceeding 9 mg/l for underground water and 18 mg/l for surface water indicate the presence of anthropic activity.
In Veneto, ARPAV (Regional Agency for Environmental Prevention and Protection) monitors drinking water and since 2007, it also measures the concentration of nitrates in every town. Classes have been identified which are attributed to individual towns based upon their control results.
The regulation of reference (Legislative Decree 31/01) outlines that the concentration of nitrates in tap water used for human consumption must not exceed 50 mg/l.
IN 2010, as in years past, the situation remained positive insofar as the concentrations of nitrates contained in drinking water never exceeded the limit.
In particular, the values have remained under 25 mg/l almost everywhere, except in some isolated instances in the Provinces of Treviso, Verona and Vicenza. (Figure 16.3.10)
By analysing the distribution trend of towns across the various nitrate concentration bands from 2007 to 2010, a reduction is observed among those with values lower than 5 mg/l and a simultaneous increase in towns with values between 5 and 15 mg/l. (Figure 16.3.11)
A final nod towards swimming waters is worthwhile. The situation with regard to these waters was excellent in 2010, with all 167 monitoring points emerging as suitable for bathing.
Protecting the territory also involves waste management, from controlling the quantity of waste created to collection, disposal and recycling systems. For this reason, waste management is constantly monitored on a European level. Until 2008, Eurostat data demonstrated a continual increase in urban waste production. In 2009, for the first time, there was a reversal in this tendency, although this was only attributable to the financial crisis and the subsequent drop in consumption. Overall in 2009, 255,813,000 tonnes of urban waste was produced, a 1.2% reduction on the previous year. By comparing the value of production to the resident population, we arrive at a European average of 512 kg per inhabitant per year in 2009, with different pictures emerging from the various EU member states. In fact, the value extends from 831 kg/inhabitant in Denmark to 316 kg in the Czech Republic. Italy has more or less followed the same trend as the rest of the EU with waste production per inhabitant amounting to little more than the European average at 532 kg/inhabitant per year.
In Veneto in 2010, 2,408,569 tonnes of urban waste were produced, an increase of 1.6% compared to 2009. It should be considered that although waste production per capita grew, it was limited to +1%, reaching 488% kg/inhabitant per year. This indicates that part of the total increase is due to an increase in population. Comparison of 2009 regional values to national and European averages shows that 483 kg of urban waste produced per inhabitant per year is below the Italian and EU-27 averages. A study of the dynamics of the last decade confirms what said above: in the face of an overall increase in waste production from 2000 to 2010 of 12.7%, the increase in the pro capita value during the same period was limited to 3.6%.
On a territorial level, pro capita production varies a great deal from one province to the next, with a peak of almost 625 kg/inhabitant recorded in Venice, as a result of tourism, and a minimum of 381 kg in Treviso. (Figure 16.3.12)
For a long time now, Veneto has been one of the first Italian regions in terms of separate waste collection. In 2009, with 56.3% of waste separated, the region came in second place after Trentino Alto-Adige. In 2010, this grew further reaching 72.4%, a figure which exceeds the latest target of 65% put in place for 2012. (Figure 16.3.13), (Figure 16.3.14)
Urban waste management in Veneto is characterised by the diffusion of separated organic waste, which represented a now consolidated reality. In 534 of the 581 towns in the region, with a population of around 4.6 million equal to around 93% of the total, wet-dry collections are in place, whereby citizens separate their wet waste from their recyclable dry waste and their residual non-recyclable dry waste on a domestic level. The home or door-to-door collection method is the most prevalent, with 449 towns doing so (around 66% of the population).
Furthermore, 46% of inhabitants of Veneto in 332 towns practise high-level sorting of waste in their homes, i.e. home waste sorting extended across all types of waste.
In this regard, it is interesting to observe how the composition percentage of towns which practise unsorted urban waste collection and those which practice wet-dry collections is changing. Following a continually changing trend, from 1999 to 2010 towns practicing wet-dry sorted waste collections have risen from 40% to almost 92% (Figure 16.3.15)
An analysis of the treatment systems for individual materials shows that the practice of land fill dumping has fallen drastically over time, from 39.3% of total waste in 2001 to 8.5% in 2010 - in favour of the recovery of organic and dry waste. Mechanical-biological treatment, or rather the production of waste-derived fuel (WDF), remains at around 23-24% (Note 14), equal to 156,000 tonnes in 2010. (Figure 16.3.16)
The ARPAV analysis on the quality of separated waste should also be highlighted. Aside from the quantities of separated waste itself, they attempted to give a qualitative measure to waste, translating it into the effective quantity of recovered material, thus cutting out the rejects present in the waste destined for recovery, and including sweeping materials, bulky waste and residual dry waste destined for recovery. Based on this operation the material recovery index (RI) was obtained, calculated in relation to the total rubbish collected.
In 2010, on the regional level, RI was equal to 55%: of the provinces, Treviso stands out again with over 75%, whereas Venice finds itself most in difficulty, though its values should be viewed separately given its particular morphological structure and the strong tourist presence which affects the city for practically the entire year.
A brief final note on the costs of the urban waste management system. Notwithstanding an increase in 2010 of 2.6% compared to the previous year, which resulted in an average cost of 127.92 euros per citizen per year, the cost remains below the value of 130.64 euros which was registered on a national level in 2007.
By focusing our attention on the urban area through the observation of several indicators, an attempt can be made to provide an environmental quality measure for residential areas. Elements linked to the quantity of green spaces, cycle paths, pedestrian areas and restricted traffic zones are of interest to this purpose.
With regard to green spaces, the values were registered in 116 main provincial towns across Italy and emerged extremely variable, largely depending on the surrounding geographical area. For example, in Veneto it is immediately obvious that the value of Belluno is almost incomparable with that of other cities: Belluno has over 870 m2 per inhabitant compared to 66.5 in Verona, which is actually in second place and over five times that of the green spaces in Rovigo. The Italian average is around 106 m2 per inhabitant. It is useful however to observe the dynamics over the past decade: compared to 2000, there have been increases in almost all main provincial towns, from +15.7% in Vicenza to +42% in Verona; a sign of a change in the environmental policies of local administrations towards protecting the territory and the quality of the environment in which we live. (Figure 16.3.17)
The second element relative to the urban environment is linked to the presence of cycle paths across the towns and cities. In 2009 in Italy, considering the provincial capitals too, there were, on average, 13.7 km of cycle paths per 100 km2, a value which has more that doubled since 2000, when it was little over 5 km.
In Veneto almost all the provincial capitals exceed the national value, reflecting a tendency of the Northern regions where special lanes reserved for bicycles (or shared with pedestrians) are more widespread. Padua particularly stands out with almost 149 km of paths per km2, a result that was reached over the course of the past decade due to the local administration's strong sensitivity to this feature of mobility, safety and liveability in the city. (Figure 16.3.18)
The third aspect of the urban environment relates to the presence of pedestrian areas and restricted traffic zones. With regard to the former, the national average in 2009 was 33.3 m2 per 100 inhabitants, a value which does however vary from city to city. An increase of over 10 m2 has however been registered since 2000. In the provincial capitals of Veneto, the presence of pedestrian areas is below the national average in four cases, whereas in Padua, with 80 m2, the value is decidedly higher. Due to its special geographical structure, Venice has the highest value of the entire nation with over 487 m2. (Figure 16.3.19)
With regard to limited traffic zones (ZTLs), the years 2006 and 2008 were examined. The situation across the different main provincial capitals appears to be quite varied in this case too: from 7,615 m2 in Treviso in 2008 to 1,300,000 m2 in Padua in 2008. Overall ZTLs increased, sometimes considerably. In Verona, for example, there were 88,500 m2 of ZTLs in 2006 which grew to 870,000 m2 in 2008. Padua also experienced elevated growth from 832,700 m2 to the previously mentioned 1,300,000 m2. Beyond absolute values, the ZTLs of the provincial capitals were also compared to their population densities. Several differences emerged between this and the simple calculation of the absolute area. For example, in 2009 the highest indicator value belonged to Verona, despite the fact that in Padua the overall area is over one and a half times greater. This is also the case for growth since 2006 which was almost 90% in Verona. (Figure 16.3.20)
There is another category of indicators linked to urban environmental quality which contributes to assessment. These indicators are linked more directly to the health of individuals. Here, we particularly consider the concentration level of gramineous pollen, for which the annual pollen index (PI) is calculated, indicating the level of exposure of the population to pollen from gramineous plants from a health point of view. This index is comprised of the sum of daily concentrations measured by relevant monitoring stations (spore detectors) during the period from January to November. The indicator does not have a limit as defined by law, but can be seen as a reference for assessing population exposure. In 2011, the monitoring station in Padua recorded a higher annual concentration, followed by Verona and Vicenza. The lowest value was recorded in Treviso. Compared to 2010, gramineous pollen concentrations have been generally increasing, except for in Treviso where a reduction of over 65% was recorded. (Figure 16.3.21)
The Associazione Italiana di Aereobiologia (AIA, Italian aerobiology association) classifies daily pollen concentrations into high, medium and low (Note 15). This allows the frequency of high population exposure to be established. In 2011, days exhibiting high concentrations of gramineous pollen increased across almost all the provinces, particularly in Padua where this occurred on 58 days. Again, the only city in which this tendency is reversed is in Treviso. (Figure 16.3.22)

Even if serious fires are reported in Veneto a lot less regularly than in other regions, the statistics clearly shows that the phenomenon is an important one which requires a constant commitment from all components of the regional forest fire prevention system. In fact, forest fires represent one of the main risk factors for the hilly and mountainous areas of Veneto, where forests constitute an essential part of the territory. Fires cause discomfort to the population, economic costs and above all, serious damage to the environment including changes in the natural landscape, the compromising of habitats essential for the survival of wild fauna, the destruction of grasses and scrubland and the subsequent erosion of the soil, often linked to landslides.
According to data gathered by the new Regional Forest Map, the forestry assets of the region of Veneto amount to 414,894 hectares, more than half of which are located in the province of Belluno.
The most consistent type of forest formations are the Orno-ostrietum and Ostrio-quercetum (19.8%) and beech forests (18.2%). (Table 16.4.1)
It was within these forest assets which the fires we will analyse occurred, specifically during the decade from 2002 to 2011.
Before beginning this analysis, it would be useful to provide a quick overview of the last three decades of data gathered by the Regional Forestry Services, in accordance with the regional forest fire prevention plans.
A significant and rapid drop is observed in both the number of fires and the areas covered by such fires, and therefore the average fire surface area. In fact, this has dropped from over 13,000 hectares during the decade 1982-1991, to 2,703 between 2002-2011, with an average surface area which fell from 9.6 hectares to 7.3. This result was undoubtedly achieved through an improvement in intervention mechanisms and through a faster response time from fire detection to fire extinction (Figure 16.4.1)
369 fire occurrences were registered over the most recent decade (Note 17). The year with the greatest number of fires with almost 100 instances was 2003, historically known for a lack of rain and high summer temperatures. The following year was, on the other hand, the year with the lowest number of fires with just 12 instances. (Figure 16.4.2)
The overall area covered by fires over the course of the ten years analysed was over 2,700 hectares, with an annual average per fire equal to 7.3 hectares. The year which experienced the largest surface area affected by fires, both in terms of total area (1,420 ha) and in terms of average area/year (24.9 ha), was 2002. This is followed by 2011 with 604 hectares total and 18.9 hectares on average. It is worth underlining that the high surface area affected in these two years was mainly due to only a few large-scale fires (Figure 16.4.3), (Figure 16.4.4)
With regard to fire distribution over the course of the months, the highest concentration occurred in March, both in terms of frequency (109 occurrences) and surface area affected (1,374 ha). This was followed by February (71 fires, 449 ha) and January (28 fires, 335 ha). The average surface areas highlight a higher level of intensity over the first three months of the year. (Figure 16.4.5)
The concentration of fires during the late winter period is typical of all alpine regions and is due to the high level of dryness characterising the period, combined with the vegetative state of the plants. A second peak is registered during the summer, during the months of July and August. This is mainly due to fires within the Euganean Hills area and the coastal pine forests where the climate is Mediterranean and where this period corresponds to the highest levels of summertime dryness.
With regard to the surface area affected by fires, 68% these has a burnt area of under one hectare, showing that in the majority of cases, fire extinguishing efforts have seriously limited damages. On the other hand, only 5% of fires exceed an area of 10 hectares, causing 80% of the total burnt area. Occurrences affecting an area of over 100 hectares are lower than 2%. This said, 10 hectares can be considered as the regional threshold of Veneto for the identification of a large-scale fire. (Figure 16.4.6)
Forest fires do not only affect wooded areas, but also grasslands, pastures and fallow land adjacent to forests. In fact, 40% of burnt areas are not covered by forests.
Within the wooded area, copses are clearly prevalent with 45% of the total area. This is due to the fact that they possess the environmental characteristics most favourable to the spread of fires, and fall within the areas most heavily affected by human activities and thus most at risk of fire starting. (Figure 16.4.7)
With regard to an altitude-based analysis, over half the fires were concentrated below 500 m, and three out of four below 800 m. In fact, as the vast majority of fires are linked to human activities, the fires are distributed at altitudes with the highest levels of anthropic presence. The distribution the fire paths is more variable with peaks falling between 300 and 400 m, 800 and 1000 m and 1300 and 1500 m.
The largest average affected areas are found at altitudes between 1,300 and 1,400m (40.3 hectares) and between 1,400 and 1,500m (112.5 hectares). This can be explained by the fact that at higher altitudes, fires are more difficult to extinguish due to the slopes' limited accessibility and the high speed of the spread of the fire, a result of the steep gradients. (Figure 16.4.8)
The prevalent orientation of the slope upon which the fire occurs also has a certain influence: in fact, in over 60% of fires the affected slope faces South (South, South-East, South-West). Similarly, over half of the time, the affected area is located in the same position, even if the average area affected by fires was higher on Eastern (19.7 ha) and Northern (19 ha) slopes; this is however only due to a few large-scale fires. Southern slopes are better insulated and are therefore drier. This elevated dryness produces environmental conditions which are more favourable for the spread of fires.
The position indicates that almost 80% of fire occurrences are concentrated on hillsides, with the remaining 20% being equally divided between the valley bottom and hilltop.
The gradient analysis shows that the vast majority of areas affected by fire (over 70%) has a slope gradient above 45%, while two out of three fires are concentrated within the two steepest gradient bands (above 25%). As already stated, the slope gradient has a major impact on the speed of the spread of the fire and on the accessibility of fire extinguishing attempts. This is also combined with the fact that generally, flat areas are normally urbanised or covered by agricultural cultivations.
The day of the week on which fires start has no significant importance. On the other hand, the hour in which they start does retain a certain significance: fires peak during the afternoon, with over half the occurrences being registered between midday and 5.00 pm, with a climax at 3.00 pm. It is at this time of the day that air temperature is at its highest and plants are most dehydrated. (Figure 16.4.9)
Regarding the causes of the fires, a good 45% of cases is caused by arson, followed by accidental fires (23%) mostly linked to agricultural activities. In 25% of cases, the cause remains unknown, although undoubtedly linked to anthropic activities. Natural causes, which in our region consist exclusively of lightening, cause 3% of fires. Fires caused by lightening require particular attention because although few in number, they are often very difficult to extinguish. (Figure 16.4.10)
Fire extinguishing efforts over the course of the last decade have involved 8,000 individuals, almost half of whom were forest fire prevention (AIB) volunteers. The division of labour between fire fighting organisations sees AIB volunteers and Regional Forestry Services personnel working to extinguish forest fires, the Fire Department extinguishing urban-forest fires, and the Corpo Forestale dello Stato (National Forest Rangers) and other police forces conducting public security, surveillance and investigation activities. (Figure 16.4.11)
The average number of staff involved per fire over the course of the years analysed was 22 individuals, i.e. 3 individuals per hectare of land covered by the fire. Even if fire fighting means have increased and the techniques have improved over time, allowing for a reduction in essential manpower, forest fires still represent an emergency situation which requires a large number of operators.
If Vicenza has had the greatest number of fires (102) during the decade analysed, it is in Belluno that the greatest area (1,753 hectares) and the greatest average area (24 hectares) affected by fire have been registered. This is due to larger wooded areas and the aforementioned characteristics of mountainous areas. On the other hand, although registering a large number of fires, the province of Verona is characterised by a small average area, due to the more hilly and anthropic nature of land, combined with an extremely vigilant local AIB system. In the province of Padua, wooded areas and thus fires are concentrated within the Euganean Hills, while in the provinces of Venice and Rovigo, wooded areas affected by fire are mainly within the coastal pine forests. (Figure 16.4.12), (Figure 16.4.13)

In an attempt to involve local communities in the pursuit of EU environment and energy objectives, on 29th January 2008, as part of the European Sustainable Energy Week, the European Commission launched the 'Covenant of Mayors Committed to Local Sustainable Energy'. It consists of a general policy paper based upon which adhering organisations shall commit to going beyond a 20% reduction of CO₂ emissions by 2020, to preparing a basic emission inventory, to presenting a Sustainable Energy Action Plan within one year of joining the Covenant, and to launching a series of concrete initiatives within their respective territories.
As of 18th April, the Covenant of Mayors was signed by 3,780 Municipalities, 1,771 of which were Italian, from all the EU countries. The initiative is also achieving success in Veneto: in fact, already 85 of the 581 Municipalities have joined the Covenant and the list is continually growing. (Figure 16.5.1)
The Ca' Foscari University of Venice formalised its sustainable policy by means of the Academic Senate's approval of the 'Carta degli Impegni di Sostenibilità - C.I.S.' (Chart for sustainability commitments) on 18th July 2010. The three-year policy paper, subject to in itinere monitoring and annual reviews, made public the adopted commitments and the actions that were put in place from the point of view of economic, social and environmental sustainability.
In reference to the latter, Ca' Foscari focused particularly on actions aimed at improving its energy performance by launching its 'Carbon Management' project, a highly innovative project particularly dedicated to the university sector.
The project was acknowledged and supported by initiatives launched by the Ministry of the Environment and Protection of Land and Sea aimed at fine-tuning carbon footprint calculation methodologies and management strategies across different sectors, both on a national and international level. The carbon footprint measures the total greenhouse gas emissions directly or indirectly caused by individuals, organisations, events or products, which affect ongoing global climate change. Each individual action producing or consuming goods and services has an implication on the carbon footprint which, depending to the methods adopted, may increase or decrease. (Figure 16.5.2)
Among the various activities, particular focus was dedicated to creating sustainability awareness and to promoting sustainable behaviour within the Ca' Foscari community via the creation of a computer-based tool that calculates individual CO₂ production.
The project involves the collaboration of the student body in environmental sustainability initiatives, as defined by the CIS of Ca' Foscari, with the aim of reinforcing day-to-day approaches with a low environmental impact and spreading good environmentally sustainable practices. The project's main innovation lies in its primary didactic function, flanked by its informative function. Acting within the education sector allows both individual and collective behaviour to be influenced and facilitates the exchange of good practices between the private and university spheres of life. Small-scale solutions such as avoiding heavy reliance on foods with a high environmental impact may significantly reduce the share of emissions, without dramatically altering lifestyles.
From a technical point of view, the calculator is a computer application created for the web (Note 18). Given the strong push towards internationalisation currently underway at Ca' Foscari, this tool is available in both Italian and English language. (Table 16.5.1)
The first time the questionnaire is compiled, the calculator will provide each user with his/her own annual carbon footprint based upon replies to a series of questions regarding daily life. It is expressed in terms of kgCO₂eq. At the same time, the program highlights the most concerning aspects of the user's behaviour, those susceptible to improvement, and the methods to follow in order to achieve a more carbon-friendly result. The user may initiate an improvement programme on the basis of the initial result.
The questions posed to perform the carbon footprint calculation were created while keeping in mind all possible users, but with specific reference to the student community. For the same reason, the tool also works like a social network, allowing for the spreading of sustainability themes and the results obtained in terms of carbon footprint by each individual or entity, sparking a sort of race between users over who best can improve their emissions.
In an attempt to stimulate emission-reducing behaviour further, a programme was launched simultaneously awarding extra-curricular formative university credits to students for their commitments to formative environmental sustainability activities including seminars, specific projects and idea competitions. Once performed, these activities are scientifically reported by students and evaluated by teachers involved in acknowledging sustainable university credits, who will award such credits in the event of a positive result.
Through the promotion of these activities, periodically integrated with the CIS, the Ca' Foscari University is focused on developing a green path which will facilitate the creation of a behavioural consciousness capable of facing the present social and environmental challenges and allowing future generations to translate their acquired expertise into behaviour directed towards the construction of a more sustainable world.

On 15th March 2012, the Ministry of Economic Development alongside the Ministry of the Environment and Protection of Land and Sea issued the so-called Burden Sharing decree for the 'Definition and qualification of regional objectives concerning renewable energy sources and the identification of the means by which to manage failures to reach objectives on the part of regions and autonomous provinces'. This decree (Note 19) distributes the national-level objectives defined by the National Action Plan (NAP), sent to the European Commission on 30th June 2010, among the regions. The final objective should be reached gradually, through the achievement of biennial aims which must be pursued by each region. The government thus puts forward rules for the definitive drafting of Regional Energy Plans. This plan identifies the limits within which local planning tools should operate in order that, alongside the contribution of all the regions and depending on the potential and condition of each, the aforementioned objective, agreed by European Union for Italy at 17% of gross internal consumption of energy originating from renewable sources by 2020, can be achieved. Although the road leading to the successful achievement of objectives has three lanes - the electrical sector, the heating and cooling sector, and the transport sector -, after observing studies performed by ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development) and by the company RSE S.p.a. (where RSE stands for 'Ricerca sul Sistema Energetico', i.e. research on the energy systems), it was believed that the burden sharing of renewable energy consumption objectives for 2020 should only involve the electricity sector and the heating and cooling sector. This is due to the fact that within the transport sector, the increase in the consumption of energy from renewable sources depends almost exclusively on tools managed and made available by the national Government. In 2020 in Italy the trajectory of regional objectives should therefore bring incidence of the gross internal consumption of energy originating from renewable energy sources (FERs) to a value equal to 14.3% of gross internal consumption, net of the FER-Trasporti and FER-Estero contributions, which should therefore cover the remaining 2.7%, thus reaching the objective of 17%. The trajectories of Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Lombardy and Lazio have remained between 5 and 2 points below the Italian average, depending on environmental development factors, the residential and productive fabric, and residual stream-lining potential in function of investment costs. As this is a scenario, the possibility of obtaining better results at equal investment levels or for short-term, unconsidered events is not ruled out. In fact, it is estimated that the production and labour crisis which has hit the Eurozone over recent years could facilitate the achievement of the objectives due to the physiological reduction of consumption, a result of families' lower buying power, leading them to focus more carefully on cost factors related to energy and transport. In territories such as the region of Veneto, where the potential of renewable energy sources is almost entirely represented by hydraulic power - already largely exploited - policies should concentrate efforts on improving the efficiency of the heating and cooling sector and within short production chain for FERs. They should develop investments which can remain within the territory and exploit generous incentives in the case of the re-qualification of environmentally compromised areas. By analysing the data in detail, one can see that the greatest growth in the share of energy consumption from renewable sources should occur in Basilicata, from 7.9% to 33% of clean energy. An important increase is also predicted for Molise (from 10.8 to 35%) and Sardinia (3.8 to 17.8%). In absolute terms however, the highest quotas of 'green' energy have been assigned to the Aosta Valley (52%), the Province of Trento (35.5%) and the Province of Bolzano (36.5%), although they are already very close to such targets and will thus have to grow little. Veneto starts from a situation in which 3.4% of energy consumption comes from renewable sources. By 2020, this number must reach 10.3%.
The monitoring of these objectives will occur on a one-year basis from 2014, when the first monitoring is scheduled. If a region fails to reach its target, it will only receive a formal warning. However starting from 2015, if the same region fails again, it will be granted a time period in which it must make amends. If this 'time limit' expires without results, energy policies will be compulsorily administered within the Region concerned. (Table 16.6.1)
On 11th April 2012, the Ministry of Economic Development alongside the Ministry of the Environment and Protection of Land and Sea and the Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies, sent two draft ministerial decrees on the subject of renewable energy to the State-Regions Conference for their opinion prior to issuance. The two regulations - the 5th Conto Energia dedicated to photovoltaic energy and that concerning non-photovoltaic renewable sources of electricity - foresee a significant reduction in interest rates for renewable electric power input into the supply mains, heading towards the European average. This reduction, which is based on an incentives system with the two-fold aim of ensuring greater balance and advantages for the national system by reducing the impact on citizen and company bills, will come into force once the 6 billion Euro photovoltaic incentive ceiling has been reached, which is predicted for the second half of 2012, and at the beginning of January 2013 for non-photovoltaic energy. According to the estimates of the Ministry of Economic Development, the reduction will total around 16% for wind energy, with 10 MW of power, and up to 30% for biomass which will not exploit the possible advantages of cogeneration and fuels gathered through short production chains. With regard to photovoltaic energy, the rates of the 5th Conto Energia will involve a reduce by 36% compared to the 4th Conto Energia, and should stabilise annual expenses at around 6.5 billion euros between 2013 and 2020, when incentives will no longer be needed due to the economic 'self-awareness' developed in the sector. It should however be underlined that the rates have been aligned with the upper limit of European rates, thus they remain high from an international point of view. The new regulation will allow for the rapid growth of the 'Renewable incentives (A3)' entry on Italian electricity bills to be contained. This has grown in influence from 9% in 2008 to over 21% in 2011, for a total bill increase which is estimated at around 24%, with a subsequent overall accumulated cost of 15-20 year incentives of around 170 billion euros. (Figure 16.6.1)
Aside from these reductions, other criteria for limiting the explosion of costs have been outlined. The most important is the institution of a registry for large-scale plants which will be restricted by a ceiling of maximum annual installable power by source, via a competitive bidding mechanism. This will in fact create the power and production of renewable electrical energy as planned by the Ministry. All this will enable ensuring constant support for renewable resources over time without paying a steep price on power bills, and allows for the creation of a 'virtuous circle' of cause and effect between increased plant efficiency, reduced costs of production, research and development in technology and materials, and the introduction of more efficient technologies.
Within the photovoltaic sector, which still has large technological efficiency margins, the regulation enables controlling speculative exploitation and facilitates auto-production from small-scale plants. Within more technologically consolidated sectors such as the hydroelectric and biomass fields, these modifications will probably lead to a change in the business' approach to the renewable electrical energy market. In fact, it will no longer be convenient to base oneself on a financial approach founded on returns generated by means of over-generous incentives. Instead, it will be necessary to choose a more industrial route by increasing efficiency. For example, it will be necessary, wherever possible, to exploit cogeneration by selling heat, an otherwise waste material from electrical energy production.
If supported by an adjustment in the electric power mains, an approach which favours small-scale plants can provide many opportunities. With regard to workforce, in comparison to a centralised productive approach, the model requires more personnel distributed across the territory. Young business consultants, qualified designers and trainers, specialised (even if less educated) installers and maintenance staff are all required to generate a buying power which might contribute to stability and social equilibrium by sustaining internal demand.
Reviewing some of the data updated as of 2010, it emerges that plants supplied by renewable sources have reached almost 160,000, more than double those present at the end of 2009. There are over 20,000 plants in Veneto, representing a share of almost 13% of all Italian installations. This increase is mainly due to a boom in photovoltaic plants which also doubled in number compared to the previous year, tripling power. The numbers of Veneto reflect a territory which seems to have grasped the opportunity made available by generous incentives more than the other Italian regions. Wind farming and the geothermal sector have not seen great developments however, mainly due to the absence of suitable environmental conditions, and thus, suitable economies. The extensive exploitation of hydraulic potential across the regional territory is quite evident. This allowed for an effective production of 4,511 Gwh of electrical power in 2010, almost 9% of national hydroelectric production (Table 16.6.2)
As previously underlined for Italy, Veneto has also recorded a significant increase in the number of photovoltaic plants installed; during the course of 2011, their number exceed 45,000 units, almost tripling power. Average plant power has also increased, more than doubling its 2010 value. (Figure 16.6.2)
When analysing the information in terms of activity sector, it becomes clear that the domestic component is greater than the national equivalent in all provinces, excluding the province of Rovigo in which the San Bellino 70 MW industrial plant alone represents 74% of power installed in the provincial territory. Keeping in mind the different vocations of the territories and their different degrees of urbanisation, one can confirm that in any case, overall in the region of Veneto the sector-based composition of installed power reflects the national picture, with a domestic sector that is consistent by around 5% with the Italian equivalent. (Figure 16.3.3)
In conformity with the principles and objectives on energy efficiency, a field that involves the regulation on building Energy Performance Certificates (ACEs), the Directorate for the Regional Statistical System, alongside the Energy Project Unit of the Veneto Region, the Associazione Nazionale Costruttori Edili (national association of Building construction operators) of Veneto and the Venetian Energy Agency (AGIRE), carried out an analysis of the ACEs received by the Veneto Region in 2010.
The ACEs have administrative origins, as they are a consequence of the application of the decree of the Ministry of Economic Development dated 26th June 2009, among the aims of which was the need to contribute to the homogenous application of building energy certificates, in compliance with Directive 2002/91/EC and Legislative Decree 19th August 2005, no. 192 and subsequent amendments and additions.
The analysis activities, which were preceded by the digitalisation, standardisation, reassignment and normalisation of the data received by the Veneto Region on paper-based forms, allowed some preliminary information to emerge regarding the phenomenon and permitted the study of several aspects.
The variables considered were the town and province of origin, the type of ACE (residential and non-residential), the year of construction, the type of electrical supply to the plants, and the global energy class of the building, which represents a standard qualitative measure of building energy efficiency.
As was to be expected, the joint analysis between the year of the buildings' construction and original energy class shows that the buildings' efficiency has grown over the years, highlighting a clear improvement since 1992 following the institution of Law 10/1991. Aside from introducing the concept of building energy certificates for the first time, and despite not being legally binding, the law set out incentives for the use of insulation in the outer shells of buildings. Stimulated by the energy crisis of 1973, Law 373/1976 had already provided indications regarding the need to reduce energy consumption, the presumed effects of which cannot however be read from our analysis. During the last period of analysis, from 2006 to 2010, the division of energy classes registered a drastic change compared to previous eras; a direct consequence of the application of the construction criteria put forward by Legislative Decree 192/2005. It can be noted that more than 60% of constructions fall within classes B and C, with 8.6% of buildings classified within the A+ and A brackets. One observes that before 1960, a significant percentage of buildings were equal to or greater than energy class C, the legislative reference threshold for those constructed after 2010. These figures are most probably distorted as a result of incomplete information regarding building reconstruction years and missing information regarding the year of construction. (Figure 16.6.4)
All this has allowed the actors involved to increase sensitivity, knowledge and awareness on the subject, useful for training, informative, planning and management purposes, by simultaneously appealing to both the public and private sectors (mainly the construction and craft sectors) and to sector expects. Particularly when used within buildings, energy is a fundamental factor for achieving global level eco-sustainability. The aforementioned analysis is therefore of great importance when it comes to making decisions regarding regional-level legislative and planning interventions.