Chapter 16

Energy and the environment

The environment, a word that brings together an endless number of contexts, is a topic that is widely debated in the media on a daily basis. The most significant issues deal with climate change and environmental sustainability in the world we live in. On the one hand there are those that feel the issue is extremely critical, while on the other hand there are those that feel it is not so important or at least not particularly critical. Both theories are supported by their own justifications. Something in the world is changing: what truly needs to be understood is how much human intervention is responsible for this change and how much it is due to the natural evolution of the planet. Undoubtedly, human activities have had an influence on the environment: the question is defining how much these activities are responsible for recent climate changes.  Another important point to focus on is how much, at this point in time, we can do to change the current state of affairs and to reduce our impact on the planet. Generally there are two approaches to dealing with environmental change: mitigation and adaptation. 
There are many studies that focus on environmental aspects on both global and local scales and the amount of data produced by these studies is enormous. "Environmental data" is often characterised by "technical" information which often makes it difficult for non-experts to understand the data. Furthermore, there are significant differences in the type of data produced from one specific area to another. In addition to this, data collection methods are also continuously evolving, making it difficult to identify trends over time. Finally, differently from demographic and economic data, environmental data is collected in specific areas, for example in a environmental monitoring station, making it difficult to describe the overall state of the environment in a broad area. Therefore, whereas in demographics we can speak about a given population per province, in environmental studies, it is much more difficult to define the level of PM10 fine particles for a given province.
In this chapter we aim to bring together diverse sources of information and data in order to identify historical trends that can help us better understand the direction we are headed in.
The specific areas focussed on are the quality, exploitation, consumption and production of air, water, land, waste and energy.
 
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16.1 The environment and sustainable growth

What is the climate change that is so often the focus of attention? And what is the current state of the environment we live in?
Several different indicators are used to monitor the state of the environment and the evolution of the entire ecosystem. Analyses are generally carried out on two levels: one regarding the "causes", i.e. pressure humans place on the environment, and the other regarding observable effects and the progressive changes in the planet's characteristics.
The former include analyses that focus on human influence on the environment, i.e. the exploitation of natural resources, soil use, water use, waste creation, and pollutant emissions.
The latter involve actual environmental impact such as the level of pollution recorded in different areas, climate changes, as well as the life conditions of the various animal and vegetable species on our planet. Specific indicators such as Living Planet Index, or LPI, monitor trends in temperatures, precipitation, the concentration of pollutants in the air, soil and water, and the air pollutants responsible for the greenhouse effect.
What is being done to contrast these phenomena, i.e. what are the targets set on an international level and the measures that are already in place? The term "sustainable growth" (Note 1) is used to describe the set of actions already taken or planned for the future that aim to promote environmentally-friendly economic and social growth.
The European context and the Europe 2020 Strategy
Let's now see how the situation is evolving on an international level by starting with Europe.
For several years now, Europe has been very active in the fight against climate change. In 2008, the European Commission approved a series of interventions aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment. A series of goals involving energy and environmental issues were identified and called "20-20-20". This plan involves: decreasing greenhouse gases by 20%, compared to the levels in 1990, throughout the EU by 2020; increasing the use of renewable sources of energy which, by 2020, should make up 20% of end-user consumption; and improving energy efficiency by reducing consumption throughout Europe by 20% (although this target is still under discussion).
On 3 March 2010, the European Commission presented the Europe 2020 Strategy which aims to relaunch the economy and face the challenges of the new decade. The Strategy has three targets: smart growth, sustainable growth and inclusive growth.
The main focus of this chapter is sustainable growth. The Europe 2020 Strategy consolidates the goals already set two years before as part of the "20-20-20" initiative.
On a global level, the situation is more complex given the need to find agreements among countries that have contexts that are even more diverse than those within the EU: from the emerging economies of newly industrialised countries such as China, or the United States where awareness of the new culture of a "green economy" is an important step towards a better future.
From the Kyoto Protocol, to the Lisbon Treaty, from the Copenhagen Climate Conference to the Cancun Climate Conference, the debate is still open and the process towards reaching common objectives for sustainable growth is long and complex.
Following the discouraging results of the Copenhagen Climate Conference at the end of 2009, the Climate Conference in Cancun from 29 to 11 December 2010 offered more positive signs of hope. The main result of this Conference was the adoption of the so-called Cancun Agreements, which are a series of decisions that, as the conclusions of the Conference itself report, include among others, the following:
  • "official recognition, under the multilateral process, of industrialised country targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (established within the Copenhaghen Agreement), accompanied by increased reporting on the part of industrialised countries and the need to assess and develop low-carbon development plans and strategies, including through market mechanisms;
  • official recognition of developing countries mitigation actions, the establishment of a registry to measure and report these actions with financial, technological and capacity-building support provided by developed countries, and the publication of a biennial report on the actions taken, which have been subject to international consultations and analysis;
  • strengthening of the Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) established as part of the Protocol;
  • the launch of a series of initiatives and institutions to support more vulnerable countries;
  • the provision of an agreed fast-start finance for developing countries approaching USD 30 billion up to 2012, and the commitment on the part of industrialised countries to provide funds rising to USD 100 billion per year by 2020 to support concrete mitigation and adaption actions by developing countries;
  • establishment of the Green Climate Fund and the start of a process to define it within the context of the Convention;
  • strengthening of the REDD (Note 2) ("Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation" programme, which includes actions to conserve forests in developing countries, with adequate technological and financial support.
The 20-20-20 Goals
As was stated previously, the 20-20-20 goals are part of the second target of the Europe 2020 Strategy, that is sustainable growth. The goals were set with the aim of conserving the competittiveness of the EU and its leadership in the green technologies market by perfecting a system that guarantees an ever-increasing efficient use of resources. This system should contribute on the one hand to reducing emissions and on the other reducing consumption in order to promote economic growth.
From a purely environmental perspective, the approach is two-fold: "mitigation" of the overall impact of human activities in order to limit climate change by reducing greenhouse gases; and "adaptation", that is changing our very infrastructure to make it capable of dealing with the climate change already taking place and with the events, at times extreme, that these changes generate.
The three targets involve all of the Member States and various climate and energy initiatives have been approved on an EU level to help pursue the them.
Some specific initiatives are: a system for trading greenhouse gas emission allowances (Emissions Trading System or ETS); a system for sharing efforts to reduce emissions; a directive that establishes a legal framework for carbon capture and storage; an agreement on renewable energies; a regulation regarding the reduction of CO2 emissions from automobiles; and a directive that establishes that by 2020 the greenhouse gas emissions generated during the life cycle of fuels must decrease by 6%.
The aim of the ETS is to gradually reduce emissions over time so that by 2020 they will be 21% lower than in 2005 in several particularly critical sectors; the ETS will come into effect from 2013. The ETS involves more than 10,000 plants in the energy and industrial sectors, which are responsible for high CO2 emissions on a global level. An auction is held for the sale of emission allowances and the profits are to be used to fund emission reduction inititatives. The Emission Trading System is an extension of a similar one established in 2005 and now includes plans to increase the number of factories and power plants involved and to include other gases in addition to CO2.
For all of the sectors that are not directly part of the ETS, the European Parliament adopted a decision that calls for a division of efforts among Member States in order to reduce emissions by 10% in these sectors.
Furthermore, a specific legal framework was created for ecologically sustainable carbon capture and storage. Large factories and power plants will have to develop permanent systems for carbon storage in an underground location "in such as way as to prevent and, where this is not possible, eliminate as far as possible negative effects and any risk to the environment and human health."
Another important point is the promotion of renewable energies. The target regarding achieving 20% of energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020 varies among Member States based on different national goals which, in certain conditions, might include energy produced by third-party countries in the overall count. The renewable energy directive also establishes that 10% of the energy used for transport be green.
The fifth aspect regards the approval of a regulation that sets an average level of CO2 for new cars at 130 g of CO2/km starting from 2012 by improving engine technologies.
Finally, the sixth aspect is a directive for controlling greenhouse gas emissions in the life cycle of fuels: the target is set at a 6%reduction of emissions, but this could reach 10% by using electric vehicles and by buying the allowances called for by the Kyoto Protocal (this additional target will be assessed by the European Commission by 2012).
Italy and the 20-20-20 targets
As has already been said, each member of the EU must contribute to achieving the 20-20-20 targets within the limits of the country's possibilities. Indeed, Italy has its own goal to achieve for each of the 20-20-20 targets.
Regarding reducing greenhouse gases, Italy must reduce overall emissions by 14% by 2020, taking 2005 as the starting year. This percentage has to be reached by reducing emissions in the energy and industrial sectors by 21% and, at the same time, by reducing emissions by 13% in all other sectors, among which the most significant ones are road, sea, and air transport and agriculture.
According to the Kyoto Protocol, greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons.
By observing the trends from 1990 to 2008, the last year for which data are available, it is clear that many decisions have to be made between now and 2020. In the EU there has been an overall decrease of 13.3%, but these positive data are counterbalanced by data from the USA where there has actually been an increase of more than 15%. Progress in Italy, however, is still not in line with the rest of Europe as its greenhouse gas emissions have hardly changed at all. Nonetheless, following the indications of the 2020 Strategy and taking 2005 as the starting point, the situation is slightly more positive. The EU, which has always been a major player in environmental policy, reported a decrease of 4% in emissions in 2008; the decrease in the USA was 2.7% and in Italy it was 5.5%. (Figure 16.1.1)

Figure 16.1.1

Greenhouse gas emission trends (Tonnes equal to CO2 including sequestration, index 1990 = 100). USA, EU27, Italy - Years 1990-2008
 
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16.2 The environment in Veneto

Air quality
Air quality is constantly monitored via the network of survey stations installed throughout the region by Veneto's Regional Agency for Environmental Prevention and Protection (ARPAV). The values of air pollutant concentrations are compared with the limits established by the laws in force and, based on the results, conclusions are made regarding the state of air quality.
Among the many pollutants monitored, particular attention is paid to data regarding PM10, ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in various areas throughout the province. (Table 16.2.1)
One pollutant that has attracted much attention in recent years is PM10. PM10 refers to fine particles deposited in the soil. PM10 comes from both natural as well as man-made sources. Natural sources are fires, soil erosion, and volcanic eruptions while man-made sources are industrial activities, heating systems and automobile exhausts.
Clearly the most critical areas are urban ones where there is more traffic and greater population density. Monitoring of some of the more significant survey stations shows that the annual average of PM10 concentration in the period running from 2005 to 2009 has tended to decrease. In 2009, almost all of the survey stations taken into consideration showed an average concentration of PM10 within the limit of the 40 microgr/m3 required by the Ministerial Decree DM no. 60 dated 2 April 2002 by the Ministry of the Environment in conjunction with the Ministry of Health. In some cases, a progressive improvement has been noteworthy, such as in the survey station in Verona, Borgo Milano. In 2005 the annual average concentration was more than 70 microgr/m3 of PM10 but in four years it decreased to only 40. (Figure 16.2.1)
Another parameter that DM 60/2002 deals with is exceeding the daily limit of 50 microgr/m3 of PM10 over the period of a year, which should not be more than 35 days.
If we take these limits into consideration, the situation appears to be rather critical. In 2009, the sampling station in Belluno was the only one that stayed within limit of 35 days required by law, with 23 days. In all of the other cases, excess of the limit was always more than 70 days. 
Nonetheless, the trend over time is positive. If 2005 is taken as a starting point, in all cases, except for Belluno, there has been a significant decrease in the number of days when the 50 microgr/m3 limit of PM10 was exceeded. This indicates that the environmental protection policies enacted and efforts taken to reduce emissions have begun to have some effect. (Figure 16.2.2)
In addition to PM10, there is constant monitoring of ozone, O3, a poisonous gas, mostly present in the higher layers of the Earth's atmosphere which, at that level, functions as a filter for ultraviolet rays from the sun. Ozone is also present in lower layers due to human activities and is a pollutant. Directive 2008/50/EC establishes limits for concentrations of O3 that are considered fundamental for the protection human health. More specifically, it sets three thresholds: an information threshold, an alarm threshold, and a long-term threshold corresponding respectively to 180, 240 and 120 microgr/m3 of O3 concentrations in the air. Each monitoring station records the number of times these three thresholds are exceeded. If we consider the number of times the alarm threshold of 180 microgr/m3 has been exceeded in some monitoring stations located in urban background areas and urban traffic areas between 2007 to 2009, we see that there are very diverse situations. In a few cases, such as Treviso-via Lancieri and Venezia-parco Bissuola, the number has decreased significantly whereas in all the other stations, the numbers fluctuate. This depends to a large degree on the climatic conditions, which undoubtedly have a great impact on the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. (Figure 16.2.3)
Water

Bathing waters

Water has always been one of the main elements that characterises the territory in Veneto. From its lakes to its dense river network, from its long coasts along the Adriatic Sea to its subterranean waters, the region owes part of its wealth to this precious natural element. Therefore, water protection is a fundamental aspect of territory management and, for this reason, the quality of Veneto's diverse water resources are continuously monitored.
There are 167 sampling stations to monitor the bathing waters; they take samples that analyse the chemical, physical and microbiological characteristics of the water.
In 2009 almost 86% of the sampling stations proved to be suitable for bathing. In addition to the overall values, which are strongly influenced by the high concentration of sampling stations in the Adriatic Sea and Lago di Garda, it is important to point out that the quality of water in two lakes, Lago di Santa Croce and Lago del Mis, has improved over time; even though they started with a negative situation in 2005, they achieved bathing-level quality in 2008 and again in 2009. (Figure 16.2.4)

Groundwaters

Italian legislation, like EU legislation, defines the state of groundwaters based on its quantitative and chemical state. Here reference will only be made to the chemical-qualitative aspect.
The chemical state of groundwaters (SCAS) identifies chemical quality by considering the values of seven basic parameters (Note 3), as well as other biodegradable and non-biodegradable pollutants.
In 2008, as in the past, the most frequent types of contaminations are those coming from nitrates, followed by pesticides and halogenated compounds.
Only 14% of the samples taken had man-made contaminants (Class 4), whereas 31% had natural contaminants (Class 0). Overall, 41.4% of the samples had good or excellent quality (Classes 1 and 2) whereas 14% were characterised by levels of contamination at the threshold of attention (Class 3 of the repealed Legislative Decree DL 152/99). (Figure 16.2.5)
A comparison of the chemical state of groundwaters in 2007 and in 2008 shows that the situation is basically stable; the chemical class remained the same for 87% of the monitoring stations, improved for 5% and worsened for 8%.

Drinking water

In the case of water use by humans, it is important to consider both qualitative and quantitative aspects. The former regards the chemical state of water for human consumption, whereas the latter the degree of conservation of water resources and, consequently, the sustainability of water use.
As far as qualitative aspects are concerned, much importance is given to the concentration of nitrates as they are very dangerous to human health.
Monitoring is carried out throughout the region in a systematic way. According to Legislative Decree DL 31/01, the concentration of nitrates in tap water cannot exceed 50 mg/l. The evaluation for the year 2009 in Veneto was positive in that none of the averages calculated exceeded the legal limit.
If we analyse the trends over time, the situation improved from 2006 to 2009: the number of municipalities whose drinking water has levels of nitrates lower than the established limit of 5 mg/l has increased from 31 to 41% of all the municipalities monitored. (Figure 16.2.6)
As far as the quantity of drinking water is concerned, the so-called "piezometric level" is used to measure the sustainability of the use of the resources available. It measures the amount of water stored in and drained from underground acquifers.
In order to maintain the ability of an aquifer to supply water, it is fundamental that the level of the aquifer be such that the yearly average of extractions over a long period does not consume all of the resources available. A positive or stable piezometric level means that the use of water resources is sustainable and that, therefore, the quantitative status of the water body is good.
If we look at the data collected in the period running from 1999 to 2009, we see that the piezometric level was stable in 89 of the 119 stations monitored, positive in 18 stations and negative in 12. These data indicate that the overall quantitative status is good/stable.
If we look at the stations where the trend is positive, we can see that they are mostly located in the province of Venezia. This is the consequence of a series of specific initiatives carried out by the province to reduce water loss in the aquifers.
Soil
The issue of soil management regards several different regional policies and has gained increasing attention as awareness of the risks associated with a non-rational use of this resource way has grown.
One very general indicator is the percentage of a territory that is urban area, namely characterised by housing and industrial areas, road networks, and other such examples of human activity. The indicator is based on aerial photography. On a regional level, as will be seen below, the most urbanised provinces are Padova (19.4% urban area) and Treviso (17.6%).
An analysis of the evolution of this indicator over time from 1983 to 2006 shows that the areas with the highest percentage variation were the province of Verona (+25.6%) and the province of Venezia (+21.9%); this increase in the province of Venezia was mainly due to the development of seaside areas and resorts.
This urban sprawl is accompanied by a decrease in Utilisable Agricultural Area (UAA).  (Figure 16.2.7)
In this report, we have chosen to focus on two specific contexts in order to analyse soil use and management as they are believed to be particularly relevant: extraction activities and industrial activities at a risk of creating significant accidents.
The end aim of quarry extraction is the sale of the materials extracted and as such it is to be considered both an opportunity for the supply of materials and jobs, as well as a risk for local environmental protection and landscape. Over time, Regione Veneto has refined various tools for regulating, monitoring and controlling extraction activities throughout Veneto, noting a decrease in the number of active quarries from 367 in 1990 to 233 in 2009.
 An analysis of the data regarding the production of quarry material and the reserves that have yet to be extracted indicates that the province of Treviso alone makes up 40% of such extraction activities in Veneto. We also see that Rovigo has no extraction activities and that the province of Venezia is engaged in these activities in a very limited way, similar to the province of Padova, which was more active in the past especially in the hill areas of the province. (Table 16.2.2)
The following figure shows the percentage of material extracted by type of material throughout the region. (Figure 16.2.8)
The second aspect of soil management to be analysed, which is one that has not always been considered enough, is that regarding industrial activities at risk of creating major environmental accidents. 
As is often the case, Community and national laws evolved significantly following major disasters, more specifically the major accidents in Seveso and Tolosa. Industrial accidents are regulated by European directives 82/501/EEC, 96/82/EC and 2003/105/EC, and, on a national level in response to these EU directives, by Presidential Decree DPR no. 175 dated 17.5.1988, Legislative Decree DL no. 334 dated 17.8.1999, and DL no. 238 dated 21.9.2005. These laws regulate plants that are at a high risk namely because they contain potentially dangerous substances that exceed established thresholds, either in storage or for use in the production cycle.
The national inventory of plants at risk of causing major accidents carried out by ministerial offices identified 100 such plants in Veneto, located throughout the various provinces as can be seen in the following figure. (Figure 16.2.9)
The largest concentration of these plants is in the municipality of Venezia, or more precisely in the industrial area of Porto Marghera, which alone has 17 high-risk plants.
The same inventory also classified the plants by type as can be seen in the following figure for those in Veneto. (Figure 16.2.10)
The data provided by this inventory are the basis for the monitoring activities the assigned agencies must carry out in order to check that the relative norms are being respected and to provide local citizens with relative information, a task which became obligatory following passing of DL no. 195 dated 19.8.2005, "Implementation of directive 2003/4/EC regarding public access to environmental information".
Waste
In 2009 2,371,588 tonnes of urban waste were produced, marking an overall decrease of 1.8% compared to 2008. The amount of waste per capita decreased by 2.6%, to about 483 kg/inhabitant per year (1.32 kg/inh. per day), a value similar to that of 2005. This number is among the lowest in the nation even though Veneto has a high GDP and more than 60 million nights spent by tourists each year.
On a provincial level, per capita waste production fluctuates between the maximum in the province of Venezia (620 kg/inh. per year) and the minimum in the province of Treviso (377 kg/inh. per year). (Figure 16.2.11)
In 2009 Veneto reached 56.3% of waste separation marking an increase of 2.4 percentage points compared to 2008. These figures have allowed Veneto to achieve results higher than the 50% established by Law 296/2006 for the year 2009 and to be among the leading Italian regions for the percentage of waste separation. It is also worth noting that the decrease in the total amount of waste produced, coupled with an increase in waste separation has led to a decrease in remaining waste (-6.8%), which totalled 1,037,560 tonnes. (Figure 16.2.12)
Looking closer at the data on a provincial level, almost all of the provinces have already passed the 50% goal. The province of Treviso, having reached 71% of waste separation, is in first place in the regional rankings and has already passed the goal established for 2012 by DL 152/06. (Figure 16.2.13)
At municipality level, in 2009, 55% of the municipalities in Veneto (46% of the population), reached the maximum goal of 65% of waste separation thanks to efforts made by citizens, who were encouraged to separate waste through numerous publicity campaigns, and the activities of the local agencies and companies who collect separated waste.
One aspect worth mentioning is waste collection as municipalities have developed systems for collecting biodegradable waste: 519 municipalities out of 581 carry out dry-biodegradable waste collection and it is the citizens themselves who separate biodegradable waste, dry recyclable waste and dry non-recyclable waste in their homes. The most widespread means for waste collection is "door to door", with 433 of the 519 municipalities adopting this system.
As far as waste recovery and disposal are concerned, Veneto guarantees high quality service thanks to a very articulate system of waste management plants. To recover biodegradable waste, there are 18 medium- and large-sized compost and anaerobic digestion plants and about 50 plants to process agricultral and garden waste. The overall capacity of these plants is equal to about 971,000 t/year, which is more than enough to satisfy regional needs for processing biodegradable waste. Waste treatment for dry waste is guaranteed by about 40 large plants in addition to 150 smaller plants. Consequently, the efficiency of waste recovery is very high, reaching 92% for plastic and 99% for metal.
With regards to these activities, in 2006 Regione Veneto signed an agreement plan with Italy's National Packaging Consortium (CONAI) to improve the way packaging waste was recovered in the region.
One of the many types of waste treatment is the mechanical biological system which aims to transform waste into refuse-derived fuel (RDF). Overall, 514,000 tonnes, or 21.7% of total urban waste, were treated with this system in 2009, producing 153,000 tonnes of RDF.
One very positive result of the waste management policies enacted is a significant reduction in landfill use for waste disposal. The use of landfills decreased by 49.4% from 2002 to 2009.
From a financial perspective, management costs in 2009 were less than 125 euro per capita per year, much lower than the national cost recorded in 2007, which was more than 130 euro per capita per year.
A final aspect worth mentioning is waste recovery for energy production. In 2008, 183,000 tonnes of waste were used for energy production.
Energy recovery was carried out by production activities that use waste as alternative fuels or together with traditional fuels. The main industry that used waste as fuel was concrete production, followed by wood processing and the production of electric energy (where, for example, the ENEL powerplant in Fusina uses RDF together with traditional fuels). (Figure 16.2.14)

Table 16.2.1

Number of air quality monitoring stations by province and type - Year 2011

Figure 16.2.1

Annual average (*) of PM10 in some stations located in urban background areas and urban traffic areas - Years 2005-2009

Figure 16.2.2

Number of days of PM10 levels over the legal limit (*) in some urban background areas and urban traffic areas - Years 2005-2009

Figure 16.2.3

Number of times the information threshold (180?g/m3) was exceeded in some of the monitoring stations in urban background and urban traffic areas - Years 2007-2009

Figure 16.2.4

Areas suitable for bathing by body of water. Veneto - Year 2009

Figure 16.2.5

Chemical state of groundwaters by SCAS value and respective quality class  (% of locations by class for all of Veneto) - Years 2007-2008

Figure 16.2.6

Percentage of Municipalities in Veneto where drinking water falls into the various classes of nitrates - Year 2009

Figure 16.2.7

Percentage of urban area by Municipality. Veneto - Year 2006

Table 16.2.2

Extracted material (m3) and reserves authorised for further extraction (as of 31/12) by province. Veneto - Year 2009

Figure 16.2.8

Percentages of extracted materials by type. Veneto - Year 2009

Figure 16.2.9

Percentages of plants at risk of causing major accidents by province - October 2010

Figure 16.2.10

Plants at risk of causing major accidents by type (absolute value). Veneto - October 2010

Figure 16.2.11

Per capita generation of urban waste by province (kg/person per year). Veneto - Years 2008-2009

Figure 16.2.12

Percentage of waste separation. Veneto - Years 2000-2009

Figure 16.2.13

Percentage of waste separation by province. Veneto - Year 2009

Figure 16.2.14

Use of waste as fuel for industrial activities (percentage values). Veneto - Year 2008
 
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16.3 Energy

The term green economy is being used and heard more and more. The media, companies and society as a whole are becoming more aware of the importance of environmental issues. These factors together with an ever-increasing number of scientific studies with shared results lead to one conclusion: the development model that industrialised countries based their growth on until now is no longer sustainable in the era of globalisation. The balances of our planet could be at risk if a global population of more than six billion people uses resources at the same consumption rates as those in industrialised countries. Since our planet, from a thermodynamic perspective, is not a closed system, we can learn to exploit the energy coming from outside our planet, such as solar energy, in more and more efficient ways in order to guarantee that the conditions of the planet we leave to our children will still be suitable for human life.
The role played by Western economic systems in the manufacturing sector has become less significant as other economies emerge and, with a decrease in growth rates, the model that was dependent on debt for consumption has collapsed. This became strikingly evident in September 2008 with the subprime mortgage crisis (Note 4). This situation has favoured a change in growth strategies towards a more sustainable model, offering an opportunity that must be seized. The energy sector is closely tied to this change in strategy and can contribute to the challenge of reviving and maintaining our economy. 
Similarly, in the political arena, the green economy has become an important topic. The green economy model has drawn more and more attention both nationally and internationally for many reasons, one of which is that it is undoubtedly politically correct. More importantly, however, it is a model that refutes the classic economic idea that natural capital can be substituted with man-made capital, highlighting the need to find a balance between the different forms of capital. The transition that can lead us in this direction is part of a strategic revolution to move towards a sustainable growth model for humanity. One of the most critical factors in this model is the energy governance of sovereign states, which in today's global era is dependent on effective cooperation and shared targets and goals at a supranational level. The need for a global governance was sadly highlighted by the natural disaster that struck Japan last March. From the perspective of energy policies, the consequences of this disaster led many countries to reconsider the role that nuclear power plants play in producing electric energy.
The energy question is, therefore, as thorny as it is pressing. Today, energy needs are tied to the scarsity of the energy sources we have historically used and a renewed need to protect our territories and the health of populations. Consequently, a series of policies has been defined and in part implemented to reward the use of energy sources that have a low environmental impact and that tend to discourage the use of traditional sources. For the future, the trump card in energy policies will be a careful and responsible use of a balanced combination of sources, increased efficiency and, as a consequence, investment in research and development.
The decisions and criteria pushing the transformation of this strategic sector are aimed at guaranteeing sustainability, security and energy competitiveness and should help define the progressive transition from the traditional model based on the production, distribution and consumpution of energy coming from the use of fossil fuels to a new model that is less dependent on them. In the process of pursuing these aims and translating them into quantifiable goals, national policies have to take international agreements into consideration.
As far as sustainability is concerned, initial steps were taken with the signing of the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997 in the context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change with agreement that growth should be compatible with environmental protection, especially in the industrialised countries that are responsible for the most significant man-made effects on the climate. Following the Kyoto Protocol, the Lisbon European Council held in March 2000 and the Göteborg European Council held in June 2001 defined the priorities for competitive growth by translating the level of electricity generated from renewable sources into targets for sustainable growth. It is within this context that the issue of energy is part of the Europe 2020 Strategy for sustainable growth. In addition to the target of reducing greehouse gases by 20% compared to 1990 levels, which is part of the section on air pollution, the sustainable energy goal indicates that by 2020, 20% of end consumption energy in Europe should come from renewable energy sources. In Italy this means reaching 17% starting from the 6.8% of 2008. (Figure 16.3.1)
Security is defined as the need to guarantee a sufficient supply of energy at suitable prices. More specifically this involves energy diversification, energy dependence and the total sum of energy imports. The issue of energy dependence is particularly significant in Italy as it is a country with very few sources of fossil fuels for energy production. (Figure 16.3.2)
This situation increases the need to diversify sources, develop renewable energies and try to reduce price differences, as the recent crisis in Libya has also highlighted. Given the need for diversificiation, a Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) processing plant was recently built in Veneto and although it is a traditional source, it has the advantage of low carbon emissions. For this reason, this source will most likely be used more and more in Italy in the future. (Figure 16.3.3)
Maritime transport for natural gas in Veneto
The world's first offshore station for LNG processing, developed using innovative GBS technology, was opened in November 2009. The station is located 15 km from Porto Levante, in Porto Viro in the province of Rovigo, and has as expected opened up new routes for importing natural gas to Italy: from Qatar, where most of the gas comes from, but also Egypt, Trinidad & Tobago, Equatorial Guinea and Norway. It was designed, built and now managed by Terminale GNL Adriatico Srl, an Italian joint venture, also known as Adriatic LNG®, which was founded in 2005 by Qatar Petroleum, ExxonMobil and Edison.
The company employs 116 people spread out over 4 locations and, by using a modern system for managing tank ships, storing and vaporising LNG, and delivering natural gas through a pipeline, the Terminal has an annual distribution capacity of 8 billion cubic metres. This capacity is just 10 percentage points below the average consumption of natural gas from 2004 to 2010. Since it makes it possible to diversify supply sources, it is a strategic infrastructure for Italy. The pipeline is 40 km long, starts at the offshore terminal and ends in the Misura di Cavarzere station where the gas is delivered to the national network, passing under the sea, wet areas and agricultural land. In addition to these two locations, the Land Headquarters, located in Porto Viro, is responsible for coordinating and managing the movement of machinery and people to and from the offshore terminal. The main legal headquarters with administrative and managerial offices are located in Milan.
The terminal uses two storage tanks, each with a capacity of 125,000 cubic metres, and in 2010 7.1 billion cubic metres of gas were distributed. It is the second LNG processing plant to become operational in Italy, following the plant in Panigaglia, in Liguria. The Panigaglia plant was built in the 1970s and has an average distribution capacity of 3.4 billion cubic metres per year; the LNG can be stored in two tanks, each with a capacity of 50,000 cubic metres, that are located on the coast in the Portovenere municipality in the province of La Spezia. In 2010, 2 billion cubic metres of gas were distributed to the national network from this plant.
Data regarding natural gas provided by the Ministry for Economic Development show that the provision of gas from the infrastructure to the Italian network increased from 1.6 Giga standard cubic metres/year imported by sea in 2008 when the plant was not yet operational, to 2.9 in 2009 and 9.1 in 2010. Particularly noteworthy is that in 2010, the first year with full production, the amount imported and treated by Terminale Adriatic LNG made up 9.4% of imports contributing to 8.5% of national consumption, receiving supplies over the course of the year from 81 tank ships. (Figure 16.3.4)
Energy efficiency
Regarding competitiveness, and keeping in mind sustainability, the main aim is to increase energy efficiency, which is measured by looking at an economy's energy intensity. If we look at the situation in Europe, we see that the energy intensity of the GDP in Italy is 142.6 toe/million euro, which is better than the EU27 average of 167.1, and the same as Italy's competitors such as France, Germany and Spain even though the situation in the UK is significantly better. Once Italy has reached the target of improving efficiency in Europe by 20%, it will focus predominantly on increasing its economic competitiveness. The norms and incentives for energy efficiency in the construction sector have already moved in this direction. If we analyse data collected by Italy's National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) and National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), we see that the energy intensity of the GDP in Veneto is slightly higher than the Italian average and similar to the other major regions in the Central and Northern parts of the country, with the sole exception of Lombardia, where the situation is significantly better. (Figure 16.3.5) and (Figure 16.3.6)
In order to pursue this strategy, on 30 June 2010 the Ministry for Economic Development approved the "National action plan for renewable energies in Italy" which provides various support mechanisms to promote the development of initiatives that can be carried out in three specific sectors: heat, transport and electricity. There are different types of mechanisms and some are subject to revision depending on external factors that may have an impact on a sector, such as technological innovations or price changes. We will now analyse the electricity sector in order to provide a relatively up-to-date understanding of the situation in Italy and Veneto. (Table 16.3.1) and (Figure 16.3.7)
The trend characterising the production of electric energy in Europe is one of consistent growth, reaching nearly 3,400 TWh in 2008, that is over 11% more than the amount produced in 2000. The largest producers continue to be Germany and France, with Italy in third place and Spain close behind. Due to the international economic crisis, there was a sharp reduction in the production of electricity in Italy in 2009, down to the 2003 figure of almost 293 TWh. Regarding the combination of production methods, there are no nuclear power plants in Italy so nearly 80% of the electricity produced comes from thermoelectric sources. From 2000 to 2008, the production of electric energy per source remained more or less unchanged in Italy and France, whereas there was an increase in the use of renewable sources in Spain and Germany. The renewable sources that have allowed for this increase are wind power and the production of biomass, especially in Germany. Although there was an overall increase in the production of energy from renewable sources in Italy as well, at the same time thermoelectric production also increased by a similar amount. If we compare the data regarding sources in 2000 and 2008, we see that on a European level there was a decrease in the nuclear power sector, with the exception of France, and in the hydroelectric power sector. The latter is a consequence of a decrease in the water resources available due to climate change, as well as to alternative uses. In these eight years, the production of thermoelectric power had an annual average increase of about 2 percentage points, with Spain reaching more than 6 percentage points. The largest increase in production involves renewable sources such as wind power, biomass production and photovoltaic (solar) energy.
There is only one wind energy plant in Veneto, located in Badia Calavena, whereas the number of plants dedicated to biomass production and photovoltaic power rose significantly.
Biomass production plants produce energy by using renewable sources, such as wood and plant waste. The heat of combustion of these sources varies from 4,200 to 4,600 kcal/kg for dry materials, about 60% of that for fossil fuels. As of 2009, about 11% of the plants were located in the Veneto, equal to 6% of the total on a national level. (Table 16.3.2)
In the last two years there has been a boom in the installation of photovoltaic power plants thanks to strong incentives to do so. The most recent data available indicates that in Veneto in 2010, there was an increase of 300% in the power produced by these plants compared to a national increase of about 200%. Also noteworthy is the average power of these plants, which increased in almost all regions, leading to an average increase in power per plant of almost 40% in 2010 on a national level. (Table 16.3.3)

Figure 16.3.1

Percentage of renewable energy out of the total final consumption of energy - EU27 - Year 2008

Figure 16.3.2

Energy dependence rate (import/export balance with respect to gross consumption - %). EU27 - Year 2008

Figure 16.3.3

Gross domestic consumption of natural gas (m3 a 38. 1 MJ/m3) - Italy - Years 2002-2010

Figure 16.3.4

The first methane ship docking at the Adriatic LNG Terminal, 10 August 2009

Figure 16.3.5

Energy Intensity of GDP (Gross Domestic Consumption/GDP - toe/million euro 2000 prices). Italy EU27 - Year 2008

Figure 16.3.6

Energy intensity of GDP (Gross domestic consumption/GDP - toe/million euro 2000 prices) - Year 2005

Table 16.3.1

Gross electric energy production by source (TWh). Italy, EU27 - Year 2008

Figure 16.3.7

Gross production of electric energy by source (% shares). Italy, EU27 - Years 2000-2008

Table 16.3.2

Number and power capacity of biomass plants by region - Year 2009 and 2009/2008 percentage variation

Table 16.3.3

Number, power capacity and average power capacity of photovoltaic solar plants by region - Years 2009-2010
 

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